Maths Invented Or Discovered - 5065 Words

Maths: Invented or Discovered? Abstract: Introduction: What is mathematics? What is the distinct definition for it? Something that always has bewildered me is what maths really is. Biology is the study of living organisms, chemistry is the study of chemicals, physics is the study of the universe and its forces, so what is maths the study off? Well the online Oxford Dictionary states that maths is â€Å"the abstract science of number, quantity, and space, either as abstract concepts (pure mathematics), or as applied to other disciplines such as physics and engineering ( applied mathematics)†. A more scientifical website states that maths is â€Å"the science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity and arrangement†. At school we have†¦show more content†¦Maths is a subject that has always interested me, but looking at the roots of it is an aspect that I have never explored. I always knew that it is very open to debate, with various different opinions but I have always been intrigued by it, so I have decided to use it as the subject of my Extended Project. I have decided to title my dissertation â€Å"Maths: Invented or Discovered?† as I felt that it would give me a wider scope to explore instead of narrowing the subject on a biased view/opinion or even a one sided argument. It will also allow me to go into sufficient detail for both sides of the subject and apply my own judgement, expressing my views on the topic as I gain a better understanding of the history of maths. Most of the research which I will gathered is web based; including some first hand research that I will conduct, most likely a survey. I felt that the Internet was the best place to gather different views as I will have a better understanding of my subject matter. This will allow me to get together a lot of research from various sources in a short space of time, as it will enable me to find similarities and differences between all the sources very easily. I feel that the question I have picked will give me a very large insight into how the opinions of the origins of maths have evolved over time, with developments into certain theories and some being totally disregarded by

What Are Stereotypes Essay - 1308 Words

Stereotypes are assumptions held about the characteristics of a particular group of people. These assumptions could be due to their race, culture, country, community and religion. Women are not as smart as men. Men are strong and do all the work. Americans are tolerant but arrogant. Girls are not good at sports. Black people are stronger than white people. Black people are criminals. Old folks are all very old fashioned. All blond women are dumb. Guys are messy and unclean. Girls are only concerned about physical appearance. Women always talk too much on the phone. All Blacks are lazy. Women are bad drivers. Muslims are terrorists. These are some famous stereotypes representing some commonly held conventional beliefs about†¦show more content†¦Clearly, there is no logic behind this stereotype. For example, if we look in the history, most of the attacks like 9/11 are done by Muslims, so it is assumed that all Muslims are terrorists. Although it is true that Muslims are involv ed in many attacks, but there are some people behind all this who try to create violence in the name of religion and who make them do this, while Islam is not about all this. These are just some violent people who try to do bad things in the name of religion. These violent people exist in every religion. Due to bad act of few people, we cannot say that all Muslims are terrorists. Another reason for the existence of stereotypes is hasty generalizations. The concept of hasty generalization is in close proximity with stereotypical generalizations. Hasty generalization is based on insufficient evidence-drawing a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is not large enough. For example, if someone is driving the car and a woman cut him off on the freeway and that person establishes the reason that â€Å"All women are bad drivers†. So, this type of assumption that the reason for her bad driving is her gender is a stereotype. Men can also be bad drivers. It is always thought that women are inferior to men when it comes to driving, but why? Just because they are easily distracted? Scared to go fast? Never mind the fact that women are most often responsible for getting all the familyShow MoreRelatedWhat is a Stereotype? Essay642 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿What is a stereotype? Stereotypes that I am aware of are cultural, groups of i ndividuals, sexual stereotypes, and men vs. women. â€Å"The definition of a stereotype is any commonly known public belief about a certain social group or a type of individual. Stereotypes are often confused with prejudices, because, like prejudices, a stereotype is based on a prior assumption. Stereotypes are often created about people of specific cultures or races. Almost every culture or race has a stereotype, includingRead MoreStereotypes Prejudice:. What Are They, And How Do They1825 Words   |  8 Pages Stereotypes Prejudice: What are they, and how do they affect communication? Today we live in a world of diversity, we have thousands of different cultures that all share the same earth. Due to this fact it is important that all of these different cultures, filled with valuable ideas, beliefs, thoughts, and people be able to communicate. There is many barriers that keep people from different cultures from communicating. Some of them are very obvious, and easy to identify such as language, locationRead MoreThis Is What It Means To Say Phoenix, Arizona: Stereotypes Essay1188 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"This Is What It Means To Say Phoenix, Arizona† discusses the physical and mental journey of Victor, a Native American man in the state of Washington, as he goes to Phoenix, Arizona to claim his father’s remains and his savings account. While on this journey, Victor learns about himself, his father, and his Indian culture with the help of his estranged friend, Thomas Builds-the–Fire. The author, Sherman Alexie, plays on the stereotypes of Nat ive Americans through the characters of Victor and ThomasRead MoreWhy Are Stereotypes Dangerous and What Can Be Done to Reduce Them?3092 Words   |  13 PagesWhy Are Stereotypes Dangerous and What Can Be Done to Reduce Them? Very often, in our everyday life, we tend to make certain generalizations about things and people around us. This is because we are constantly exposed to heaps of information, and in order to cope with the complexity of the world around us, we need to generalize and categorize.[1] Sometimes we do this on purpose, with some intention. However, very often we do this subconsciously, unaware of what we are doing. ManyRead MoreI Learned At A Young Age Of What A Stereotype Really Means764 Words   |  4 PagesI learned at a young age of what a stereotype really means. When people look at me or speak with me, they think I am a simple white girl who grew up in the perfect house. I would say I have spent most of my life being sheltered by my mother. My mother is an amazing woman who had high goals in life for my sister and I. My mom was a single mom raising us alone, she never thought she would face a challenge which is having a deaf daughter. People do not realize being deaf is chall enging in so many waysRead MoreWhy Stereotypes Are Bad And What You Can Do About Them957 Words   |  4 Pages In today’s mainstream society, the media creates various of negative thoughts and stereotypes in different forms. These forms include class, gender, and sexuality. Day by day images or videos go viral creating these negative issues spreading like wildfire throughout the web. For instance, if an image or meme is created and posted online of someone who is identifies themselves as something other than straight, or someone from a low-class people go and share these images just for their entertainmentRead MoreStereotype And P. 107 : Assumptions Of What People Are Like, Whether True Or False2042 Words   |  9 Pages1. Stereotype / p. 107: Assumptions of what people are like, whether true or false. The documentary introduces us to the â€Å"wetbacks,† which is a label given to those who illegally cross the Mexico-U.S. boarder through a river called â€Å"Rio Grande,† without the benefit of a bridge. In details, the documentary follows throughout a journey that some chooses to face, in order to enter the United States. †Thus, wetback characterizes anyone who enters [the United States] illegally from Mexico. The term,Read MoreThe Personality Of A Executive Who Wears A Suit1340 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction In stereotype, people think there are some typically appearance and posture of a leader. The appearance and posture of a typical leader which people usually used to evaluate a leader include tall, a deep voice, a good posture, a touch of grey in his thick, lustrous hair, a fit body and ages. Although there are some people who don’t fit these typical features runs some dynamic businesses in the world. Even Peter Thiel, one of Silicon Valley’s leading investor, introduces a role: neverRead MoreStereotyping : Stereotypes And Stereotyping1494 Words   |  6 Pages In everyday life Stereotypes are used, they are directed towards ethnicity, gender, and education. â€Å"In ethnicity, we have the ideas that each race is a certain way† (Aronson. The impact of stereotypes). Here are a couple of examples for blacks, they all can run fast, and that they are all about the welfare system. â€Å"For Hispanics they are stereotyped as being crazy, loud, lazy, drug dealers, illegal immigrants, and slutty† (Typical stereotypes of Hispanics). The stereotypes of ethnicity is causingRead MoreEssay on Stereotypes are Grounded in Truth1109 Words   |  5 Pagespoint where you only have two choices; either you go left where there is a group of tattooed muscular black men or you go right where you find a group of well dressed white men. What would you do? Your immediate choice would be to stay clear from the group of black men and that you’d be better off going to the right. What just happened here was that you assumed a certain group of huma n beings is more likely to cause you harm than the other. From a very young age we start to categorize things in to

Tourism and it’s negative Effects Free Essays

While tourism can be a powerful positive force for change in poor countries, it can also be seriously damaging for the local environment and culture. An increase in mass tourism that is not controlled responsibly can ruin areas of natural beauty. We will write a custom essay sample on Tourism and it’s negative Effects or any similar topic only for you Order Now com/the-economic-impact-of-tourism/"Tourism can damage coral reefs, pollute beaches and destroy the habitats of wildlife as roads and hotels are built. Ironically, damage to these natural resources is likely to reduce future numbers of visitors. Another negative effect is that the increasing numbers of aeroplane ?ights are a major cause of global warming. A second problem is that the tourist resorts are frequently owned by large Western companies and all too often the pro?ts earned from tourism go straight into the bank accounts of these companies. Moreover, the well-paid managerial positions are often held by foreigners, and the wages given to local hotel employees are usually very low. Where this is the case, very little money enters the local economy at all. By purchasing souvenirs, food and other goods from local people you can help to spread the bene?ts of tourism. Finally, tourism can have an adverse effect on local culture, traditions and the way of life. Large numbers of tourists can undermine traditional beliefs, values and customs and in particular risk commercialising the culture that they ?nd so interesting. And where these tourists are insensitive to local traditions their behaviour can cause great offence. Tourism Fact File  · Tourism employs 250 million people, roughly one in ten of the world’s workforce.  · 80% of the people that travel internationally come from the USA, Canada, Japan and 17 European countries, including the UK.  · 15 million Britons take package holidays abroad each year.  · The developing world’s share of the tourist trade has increased by an average of 9. 5% a year since 1990.  · The amount of money that leaves a destination country (the country where people spend their holiday) varies from 40% out of India, and 80% out of the Caribbean islands.  · The UN calculates that the amount of water used by an average tourist in 24 hours would be enough to grow rice for an individual for 100 days.  · An 18-hole golf course in a dry country can use as much water as a town of 10,000 people. How to cite Tourism and it’s negative Effects, Papers

System Compliance Training Essay Sample free essay sample

The nucleus of Electronica has ever been electronics and engineering. without these there would be no invention or advancement in today’s economic system. The changeless development of engineering gives organisations the border on the market and allows the company to take the battalion in engineering. Once you start to see the economic system as an germinating system of engineerings. you begin to recognize that an atrocious batch of invention has to make with understanding the new possibilities that exist ( Kleiner. 2013 ) . Organizations that evolve with the continual growing that the engineering industry provides continue to bring forth merchandises on demand leting the organisation to stand out in gross. The organisation already supply province of the art electronics and engineering. nevertheless this procedure can be improved upon. Every section will lend to the success of the organisation and preparation is the first measure in this procedure. Training will be about 10 hours and direction will be required to go to this preparation to demo the importance of this preparation. We will write a custom essay sample on System Compliance Training Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When the preparation session’s has been complete an rating sheet will be issued to all attendants to garner information if the preparation was good. Aims * To developing all directors to the criterions of the System Compliance demands to increase efficiency. * The debut of new policies and the importance of implementing them through preparation. * Increase squad edifice accomplishments through interaction in group undertakings. * Gather all constructs learned in preparation and use them in state of affairss to increase the value of the company. Stakeholders The stakeholders are non merely stockholders of the company but besides employees. All employees involved in the preparation will profit from custodies on experience and to the full understanding the new conformity system through squad edifice exercisings. Management must go to the preparation because of the duty he or she provides for the organisation. and the preparation will develop techniques that will increase his or her efficiency. Stakeholders ain portions that will increase because of the preparation Sessionss will increase productiveness and efficiency within the company. Evaluation of Success In order for this undertaking to be a success will be determined by the heed of the audience and how much is comprehended. Management must implement the new policies and develop other on them every bit good to to the full win. Survey’s will be issued out to all attendants to inform the effectivity of the preparation and what can be improved to do preparation more effectual. All studies will be confidential to guarantee that honestness will be upheld without the fright of disciplinary actions. Highlights to Determine MOV: * Employees understand the importance of preparation for the better good of the company. * Employees are motivated to develop and implement constabularies on others to acquire best consequences. * Cost of preparation will non transcend the benefits the preparation will supply. Electronica believes the execution of this preparation is a measure in the right way. Although this company is in a great place to stand out in this market. betterments are ever welcome within the company. and this is a measure closer to that phase of flawlessness. Mentions Kleiner. A. ( 2013 ) . The Development of Technology. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. strategy-business. com/article/00014? pg=1

Pager Vs. Cell Phone Essays - Mobile Technology, Pagers,

Pager Vs. Cell Phone What Does This Message Mean? Today devices known as Pagers are over flooding the world of communication. Pagers are devices that bring confusion to their users. The most common problem would be the method of sending a message. To send a message is very simple but you cannot give the message its sense of seriousness. That is why some Pagers owners discard messages that in fact might be a serious matter. Beginning in the late seventy's when pagers started to gain popularity, more problems occurred after the necessity to add more area codes. This also affected the people who don't own Pagers. In the late eighties a solution to the problem was introduced. The Cellular Phone was to be the next generation of wireless communication. The features that the Cell Phone provides prove it is better than a pager. Therefore eliminating the pager out of the market is justified, and can be done in a few years. Since the first day pagers were available, they didn't provide many features. One negative aspect of a pager is that the receiver cannot determine if the message is important or not. Other than displaying the sender's number, it can display time and date - big deal. Some newer pagers are able to display text messages. This feature gives the owner more information about the page that he receives but he cannot determine the importance of the message. The message that a sender composes isn't as articulate a verbal conversation would be. The Positive aspects of a Pager are questionable. The popularity of pagers is most common among teenagers. Some people say that Pagers can be a good start for teenagers into their adolescent life. Some parents do not allow their children to own ?beepers?. But later these parents notice the ?importance? and eventually change their mind. A mother from Chicago, Kathy Nelson says ?We (parents) were adamantly opposed to beepers because of the drug connotations and the ban in school, they both got them without permission, then they told us. But I've had a complete turn around. Now I can always reach them and they always call me back.? Robert Sack, psychiatrist from Virginia says, ?Pagers should be a privilege, like having your own phone. They shouldn't be abused. But in a lot of cases it keeps the kid honest because they can be tracked down.? The reason these two examples are questionable is because the parents aren't the users of the pagers. They know that they are sending a message to th eir child, and they think that their child will perceive it the way they do. Most of the time the message isn't perceived by the receiver the same way the sender does. This doesn't happen in a verbal conversation. The nineties are the decade of the Cell phone. Service providers are running out of numbers, new area codes are required, and more confusion is created. But the up of this down would be that no matter what the cell phone is better than the Pager. The cell phone has more convenient features, and is classified as the number one candidate for the exchange between a pager. The cell phone is a very unique unit. It can be used as a pager, and regular phone, with the convenience of being mobile. Cell phones may also have a feature known to most people as caller ID. This feature can be utilized as a pager. Cell phones are a very quick way to reach a person immediately when in need. The best feature of a cell phone is that the user verbally communicates with the other person. There are no numbers, no awkward codes, or twenty-second limits. On a cell phone, just like any other phone, the user can be more expressive and to the point. This function is very important because pager users don't hav e this function, and they aren't as reliable as phones. The most important feature every consumer is looking for is the price of operating such devices. Pagers range from $20 to $100 per unit. The service ranges from $0 (caller pays) to $40 a month. A Cell phone costs a slightly more. Price ranges from $40 to $200 per unit,

Free Essays on Experience of Literature

The Nymph and the Landslide For this comparative essay, I have chosen to compare the poem â€Å"The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd,† by Sir Walter Ralegh to the song Landslide written by Stevie Nicks and performed by the band Fleetwood Mac. The content of the essay will focus on the tone, theme, sound effects, imagery, point of view and form between the two works. In â€Å"The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd,† the tone of the poem is non-optimistic. The nymph can not see the idealistic view of the shepherd ever working. She relates everything will change due to time and therefore believes the shepherds love will not last forever as well. The nymph states, â€Å"Time drives the flocks from the field to fold/When rivers rage and rocks grow cold.†(pg. 899 Bedford) This shows us that she feels nothing will last because eventually time takes over and everything changes. Even with all the offers the shepherd had for her she still rejects him with the doubt that it will not be everlasting. She says â€Å"Thy gowns, thy shoes, thy bed of roses/ Thy cap, thy kirtle and thy poises/Soon break, soon wither, soon forgotten,†(pg. 899 Bedford) which amplifies her statement that she doubts the shepherds love. At the end of the poem, the nymph reverses her views, but we find that she asks for impossible feats to happen in orde r for her to love the shepherd. The terms on which she states that she would love the shepherd are â€Å"But could youth last and love still breed/Had joys no date nor age no need/Then these delights my mind move/To live with thee and be thy love.†(pg. 900 bedford) This shows that if time and change never occurred she would love the shepherd because it would be forever. On the other hand, the tone of Landslide is very reflective. The narrator is reflecting on her love and how she spent it. It seems that she is also afraid of a change coming, but is ready and willing to accept it. This is so because the narrator fe... Free Essays on Experience of Literature Free Essays on Experience of Literature The Nymph and the Landslide For this comparative essay, I have chosen to compare the poem â€Å"The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd,† by Sir Walter Ralegh to the song Landslide written by Stevie Nicks and performed by the band Fleetwood Mac. The content of the essay will focus on the tone, theme, sound effects, imagery, point of view and form between the two works. In â€Å"The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd,† the tone of the poem is non-optimistic. The nymph can not see the idealistic view of the shepherd ever working. She relates everything will change due to time and therefore believes the shepherds love will not last forever as well. The nymph states, â€Å"Time drives the flocks from the field to fold/When rivers rage and rocks grow cold.†(pg. 899 Bedford) This shows us that she feels nothing will last because eventually time takes over and everything changes. Even with all the offers the shepherd had for her she still rejects him with the doubt that it will not be everlasting. She says â€Å"Thy gowns, thy shoes, thy bed of roses/ Thy cap, thy kirtle and thy poises/Soon break, soon wither, soon forgotten,†(pg. 899 Bedford) which amplifies her statement that she doubts the shepherds love. At the end of the poem, the nymph reverses her views, but we find that she asks for impossible feats to happen in orde r for her to love the shepherd. The terms on which she states that she would love the shepherd are â€Å"But could youth last and love still breed/Had joys no date nor age no need/Then these delights my mind move/To live with thee and be thy love.†(pg. 900 bedford) This shows that if time and change never occurred she would love the shepherd because it would be forever. On the other hand, the tone of Landslide is very reflective. The narrator is reflecting on her love and how she spent it. It seems that she is also afraid of a change coming, but is ready and willing to accept it. This is so because the narrator fe...

As a Sales Manager in today's difficult retail environment, what steps PowerPoint Presentation

As a Sales Manager in today's difficult retail environment, what steps do you take to ensure your team members achieve their sa - PowerPoint Presentation Example The Australian retail sales manager has to focus on the four major marketing strategy steps to succeed in the Australian retail market segment. First, the Australian retail sales manager has to focus on the product and service step of the company’s marketing strategy. According to Ritz (2007), the Australian retail company must implement some marketing changes to increase the clients’ demand for its products. The company must add additional shoe styles. The stores must offer the best service and sell high quality food, and other retail products based on the latest Australian retail market segment trends. The company must increase the store displays of the highly salable products in the food, grocery, and other retail products. The company must conduct a feasibility study to determine the current Australian retail product trends to determine what products to sell in the retail outlets. Second, the Australian retail sales manager has to focus on the price step of the Aust ralian retail company’s marketing strategy. Czinkota (2007) insists that the company must institute reasonable prices to increase its client base. The reasonable price is not the same as the lowest price.

OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT SKILLS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT SKILLS - Essay Example Raw material cost. The cost for buying raw materials to be used in boot division maybe high. The boot division may be making losses in their sale, or their stock may not be moving and therefore could’not be able to meet the cost of buying raw material. The raw materials may also make boots not to be durable, and this may trigger complaints from customers. This may force the company to use its money to purchase the raw materials for the boot division. In such situation the company should stop producing boots in the mean time until the all stock of boots move or until the cost of raw materials used in boot division lowers. Labour cost (wages). This is another cost of the company affected by the boot division. This can happen when the boot division has has a large number of employees than the required capacity. This may lead to shirking effects, where some workers may free ride and the company may end up spending more in paying wages. The company should therefore determine the required capacity of workers needed in boot division, and reduce this number based on productivity and performance. Advertisement cost. These are costs incurred in the prrocess of informing customers about the product. The boot division may be incurring more cost in advertising their products. This may lead to the company spending more on advertisement of the products. The company may prevent this by determining the desired level of advertisement required for boots to avoid spending more on advertisement. Promotion cost. This is the cost incured in promoting the products of the company. The boot division may increase the promotion cost of the company if it gives the customer promotion every time. Such promotion can be price discounts. The company should determine if the cost boot division is using more in promotion, and regulate if necessary. Packing costs. The packing of boots may be costly, leading to increase in

A Race for Intelligence Gains through Aerial Reconnaissance Term Paper

A Race for Intelligence Gains through Aerial Reconnaissance - Term Paper Example One of the most striking features of the Mosquito bombers as reconnaissance vessels was its reliable speed in aerial space. Technical features range to incredible numbers such as with the Mosquito PR Mk 34 and PR Mk 34A. These units had addition fuel carried in a bulged bomb-bay - 1,192 gallons which was the equivalent of 5,419 miles. A further two 200 gallon drop tanks under the outer wings gave a range of 3,600 miles cruising at 300 mph. Powered by two 1,690 hp Merlin 114s first used in earlier Mosquito units. A total of 181 were built, including 50 built by the Percival Aircraft Company (Bowman 165).As what had been explained above, both Spitfire fighters and the Mosquito bombers were the most versatile aerial vessels of the British Royal Air Force. Both were proven exceptional when it came to dogfights and bomb raids respectfully. They were efficient in aerial defenses that kept enemy aerial raids at bay. Both units were also useful in assault missions where escort Spitfires prov ided cover for raiding Mosquito bombers above enemy territory. More importantly, espionage missions were the key factors which created the Spitfire and the Mosquito a treasure to the British Royal Air Force. The speed and efficiency both the mentioned fighter and bomber units possessed were the primary aspects which catapulted the Spitfire and the Mosquito into heavy reconnaissance tasks. Flexibility to adopt with the environment and the maneuverability of the mentioned units were beneficial for low, medium and high altitude spying.  Ã‚  ... Technical features range to incredible numbers such as with the Mosquito PR Mk 34 and PR Mk 34A. These units had addition fuel carried in a bulged bomb-bay - 1,192 gallons which was the equivalent of 5,419 miles. A further two 200 gallon drop tanks under the outer wings gave a range of 3,600 miles cruising at 300 mph. Powered by two 1,690 hp Merlin 114s first used in earlier Mosquito units. A total of 181 were built, including 50 built by the Percival Aircraft Company (Bowman 165). As what had been explained above, both Spitfire fighters and the Mosquito bombers were the most versatile aerial vessels of the British Royal Air Force. Both were proven exceptional when it came to dogfights and bomb raids respectfully. They were efficient in aerial defenses that kept enemy aerial raids at bay. Both units were also useful in assault missions where escort Spitfires provided cover for raiding Mosquito bombers above enemy territory. More importantly, espionage missions were the key factors wh ich created the Spitfire and the Mosquito a treasure to the British Royal Air Force. The speed and efficiency both the mentioned fighter and bomber units possessed were the primary aspects which catapulted the Spitfire and the Mosquito into heavy reconnaissance tasks. Flexibility to adopt with the environment and the maneuverability of the mentioned units were beneficial for low, medium and high altitude spying. On the opposite end of the spectrum, the Luftwaffe provided the Germans with unique espionage units. At the onset of the war, ordinary German passenger planes were used as the primary aerial vessels for the campaign of enemy espionage. These were indeed decisive actions taken by the German intelligence because they risked innocent civilian

Social Infrastructure and Economic Growth

Social Infrastructure and Economic Growth Abstract This dissertation has had a focus on the relationship and links between social infrastructure and economic growth in the context of Sub-Saharan countries. Predictability in development and growth is oftentimes linked to various endogenous conditions that can ultimately enhance or detract from the overall potential of a modern nation. The object of this research was represented by social and economic indicators in 23 Sub-Saharan countries. The aim was to find out whether the social infrastructure has a statistically significant impact on economic growth in this region. In order to reach this aim, the method of regression analysis has been implemented. The study has covered a wide range of social and economic variables observing them for a period from 1980 to 2008. The results of the study revealed that only population growth, life expectancy and savings rates are statistically significant determinants of economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. This finding has supported the assumpti on that social infrastructure is an important factor that effect economic growth and development. However, the research has been limited by the lack of information on all 33 countries in Sub-Saharan region. Therefore, the sample was reduced to 23 countries. Furthermore, some social indicators such as Gini coefficient and mortality rates were not available for some of the older years in the sample. The study ends with recommendations to policy makers and discussion of implications. Dedication and Acknowledgment This dissertation is dedicated to my parents who I love unconditionally. I would like to express my gratitude to the University staff for the knowledge they shared with me and inspiring me to think critically. Authors Declaration I declare that the research project has been independently prepared by myself and represents an original work with no plagiarism. All external ideas and quotations have been properly referenced. The full list of references is contained at the end of the dissertation. Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background As economic theory has evolved over the past several decades, a variety of variables have begun to infiltrate the standard models of growth and development. Roseta-Palma et al. (2010), for example, recognise that human capital has become an increasingly important variable in growth modelling, suggesting that the force behind such capital can radically alter the shape and potential of industry and markets. However, there is an inherent expectation of support, one which is based on the conceptualisation of the social infrastructure that leads the vocal masses to expect national investment in their wellbeing. To perform within a developing nation, society must be supported. The support must include effective health care and improved educational standards. The perpetuation of economic performance within diverse marketplaces ultimately relies upon the sustainability of such practices, leveraging human capital and contributing to market development. The theoretical background of this dissertation is represented by the elements of the economic theory that explains the growth and expansion as well as the role and influence of social factors. Econometric models put forward by the UN will be of particular importance. The research project will also review the arguments of famous contemporary economists such as Stiglitz (2009) and Jones and Klenow (2010). This will serve a useful theoretical background to the wider analysis, which is required for answering the research questions. The literature review will also cover the mainstream development theories such as dependency theory and social justice theory. From a conceptual perspective, researchers such as Newman and Tomson (1989) provide a precedence of focusing on social factors in economic development. They argue that social infrastructure is an essential element in sustainable long term growth of the economy. This theory may only be accepted as valid if it is statistically supported using the case studies of the economies. The testing has previously conducted by Jones and Klenow (2010). The researchers indeed supported the theory by finding that economic growth was boosted by increasing life expectancy in many countries. However, these researchers have not found such support of the theory for African countries in Sub-Saharan region. Therefore, this dissertation will attempt to study this region in more details and find statistical dependency between the social infrastructure and economic growth. Using the method of multiple regressions, a sample of 23 countries in Sub-Saharan region will be explored. The study will cover a period from 1980 to 2009. 1.2 Aims and Objectives In African countries, economic growth is a function of a wide range of variables such as foreign aid, foreign direct investments (FDI), policy reformation and liberalisation and others. This investigation seeks to examine a link, which is frequently overlooked in this dynamic and evolving economic system: social infrastructure. There is an innate reciprocity between social infrastructure and economic growth, one which requires further definition within the context of African evolution in order to determine the true order of events. In order to limit the scope and breadth of this study, the following aims and objectives were established: †¢ To determine whether social infrastructure is a fundamental determinant of economic growth. †¢ To explore statistical significance of social infrastructure as a determinant of the economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. †¢ To recommend strategic policy implications for the transition economies in Sub-Saharan region that would help them to grow and expand. 1.3 Research Questions Based on the aforementioned aims and objectives, particular research questions were defined. They focus on investigation of the relations between the African social infrastructure and economic growth experienced by various nations within this region. It may be argued that the socio-economic aspects, which contributed to successes for many nations, remain inconsistent and non-definable today. Based on this supposition, the following research questions were defined prior to engaging in the investigative process: †¢ What are the primary threats/pitfalls associated with economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa today? †¢ Does social infrastructure have a statistically significant impact on economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries? 1.4 Chapter Layout In order to standardise the research project, it was important to create a clear structure and presentation format. The study is structured in a way that would allow for progressing from more general information regarding the Sub-Saharan countries to more specific information regarding the variables that have a direct impact on the growth of the transition economies. The rest of the research project has the following structure. †¢ Chapter 2: Literature Review. This chapter focuses on a broad range of theoretical and empirical data that has been retrieved from a variety of academic sources. This literature review explores the determinants of the social infrastructure for developing nations, focusing on Sub-Saharan Africa. †¢ Chapter 3: Methodology. This chapter highlights the research methodology chosen during the collection and analysis of empirical data. Based on the precedence established by the past researchers, econometric modelling is used as the main method of the r esearch. This chapter also discussed the strategies and approached that were used with their justification. †¢ Chapter 4: Data Presentation. This chapter reveals the main findings and results of the research. The historical statistical data is presented and analysed. Correlation and regression analysis is applied to the data. The main results are summarised in tables and figures. †¢ Chapter 5: Discussion and Analysis. In this section, a synthesis of academic and empirical data is presented. The discussion is focused on the original research questions and objectives. They are compared to the findings achieved by previous researchers. Similarities and differences are analysed and explained. †¢ Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations. The final chapter provides the final insight into the relations between social infrastructure and economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. Recommendations for future research are offered since the research project has encountered par ticular limitations that have to be addressed in the future. Furthermore, policy implications are recommended in this chapter. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1. Measuring Economic Growth While it is widely recognised that the measurement of economic growth provides an accurate picture of development and achievement in transition nations, the inherent value of such metrics has been questioned during the last decade because of several pitfalls. Hoogvvelt (2001:8) argues that in early development models, all emphasis was placed on strategic enhancement of the transition economies with impoverished nations. A traditional indicator of economic growth is represented by GDP. While conceptually indicative of growth and economic expansion, this indicator has been recently challenged as an effective measurement of sustainable national development. In fact, researchers such as Stiglitz (2002, 2007) and Collier (2007) have offered the arguments on the fact that GDP fails to represent an accurate picture of national economic welfare. It is argued to limit the identification of economic inequality and circumvent such influential social indicators as mortality rates, GNI per capita , education levels, etc. Other researchers such as Thakur (2006) have suggested that the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) should be used as an alternative measure of economic growth besides the GDP. 2.2. Growth Models The economic theory provides different growth models that explain the factors of economic growth and help to determine what cause an economy to expand. Among the well-established theories of growth are the neo-classical models suggested by Solow (1956: 65) and Ramsey (1928: 543). However, there are also alternative models that have recently been proposed. The most notable example is the endogenous growth model. 2.2.1. Neo-classical Growth Model of Solow and Ramsey The exogenous growth model has been originally presented by Solow (1956: 65). It is an extension of the previously formulated Harrod-Domar growth model. The latter suggests that the rate of economic growth is a function of the productivity of the countrys capital and the savings rates. Solow (1956: 65) has improved the Harrod-Domar growth model by differentiating between the new capital that emerged from the use of new technology and old capital. Diminishing returns started playing an important role in the exogenous growth model. Solow (1956:65) has also added labour to the determinants of the economic growth. The researcher argues that more than one factor of production should be included in the growth model. These factors are capital and labour. The researcher also emphasises the role of the technological progress in the economic growth. However, the model may be criticised for failing to provide the explanation of how and why the technology develops. In addition, the exogenous growth model may be criticised for neglecting the factor of entrepreneurship, which is argued to have a strong impact on economic growth (Braunerhjelm, 2008: 51; Audretsch et al, 2006: 119). Mathematically, the exogenous growth model may be presented as follows: Where Y is the output of the country; K is total capital (both new and old); L stands for labour; A represents technological development. The exogenous growth model is heavily reliant on the indicators estimated per capita. Hence, it places a significant emphasis on the role of the population growth in the economic growth. The capital per worker is argued to be growing only if the savings rates exceed the rate of populations growth and the level of depreciation of the capital. The exogenous growth model also suggests that the savings rate would be steady in the long run and have a positive correlation with the economic growth, i.e. the countries with higher savings rates will be expected to have higher economic growth. However, this notion was criticised by Ramsey (1928: 543) who proposed an alternative neo-classical model of growth. In his model the savings rates are assumed to be varying and not constant. The Ramsey model has changed the way the capital is modelled. Mathematically, it is represented as follows: Where k is capital; c is consumption; ÃŽ ´ is the rate of depreciation of capital; f (k) is the value of total production. Since the savings rates are not viewed as constant, the level of consumption is also considered as a varying process since it is tightly connected to savings. Since neither Ramsey nor Solow model of growth included the factor of entrepreneurship and explained technological progress as an endogenous process, an alternative model has been developed. It is called endogenous growth model (Barro and i-Martin, 2004: 205). 2.2.2. Endogenous Growth Model The previously discussed exogenous growth models suggested that a countrys GDP is a function of the savings rate and technological advances. Nonetheless, these exogenous growth models failed to show how savings are determined and how the technological changes are driven. These limitations are effectively solved by the endogenous growth model. It suggests that savings rates are simply a function of the utility maximising actions of the economic agents. Given the financial constraints, companies would aim to maximise their net income while consumers will tend to maximise their utility (Romer, 1986: 89). The endogenous growth model also explains technological progress as a result of the favourable policies from the government that do not restrict innovations and changes in the industries. It is valid to argue that in developing countries the governments may attempt to put certain restrictions on changes and innovations in order to protect the key sectors of the economy. The endogenous growth theory suggests that such actions would lead to a slowdown in the economic growth in the longer term. The theory also views company investments in the research and development as the way to technological progress and faster economic growth. Hence, the theory explains the growth of the economy with microeconomic elements (Aghion and Howitt, 1992: 323). However, the model has also been criticised in the economic literature. For example, Parente (2001: 51) argues that the endogenous growth model, even though being more complex, still fails to explain why there is a divergence in the national income per capita in emerging economies and developed countries. 2.3. The Social Factors, Economic Development and Equality A widespread academic research on social equality demonstrates that impoverished nations have traditionally failed to achieve healthy social infrastructure, which can sustain development amongst all groups of the population. Sebitosi and Pillay (2005:2045), for example, argue that poverty â€Å"is largely due to failure by society to productively deploy human resources† (Sebitosi and Pillay, 2005: 2045). The researchers argue that the governments of the countries with transition economies and policymakers cannot actively engage every individual in economic activities. In many cases, funding welfare programmes that were fiscally unsustainable has had minimal impact on the social welfare of the national inhabitants (Sebitosi and Pillay, 2005:2045). This is also illustrated by the efforts made by the African National Congress (ANC) in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Ultimately, it is the strategic utilisation of national resources that will allow for perpetuated social stability, gradual reduction of poverty over and improvement of social infrastructure. Sebitosi and Pillay (2005:2048) argue that availability of resources and the specifics of the culture determine the social infrastructure in a country. This, in turn, plays a role in the economic growth and development. Equality is a term used for describing the gap between the rich part of the population and the poor. This term is also expanded to describe the difference in rights between males and females, young and old, native and foreign ethnic groups, etc. Researchers such as Morvaridi (2008) and Houtzager (2005) argue that the merits of equality should be used as indicators of long term sustainability and economic growth of a nation. Anderson and Cavnagh (2009) have presented empirical evidence on the existence of income inequality and gender inequality that negatively impact the economic growth and development. Other academics (e.g. Sen, 2001) suggest that innate human rights must play a fundamental role in the development discourse, emphasising deficiencies within the national infrastructure that interrupt widespread equality. Accessibility and availability of resources and the level of social equality in developing nations are frequently identified as primary indicators of social development. Researchers such as Moradi and Baten (2005) have modelled social inequality according to anthropometric data. The model is focused on the level of development of social groups over the past decade. Their evidence highlights two different phenomena that have implications for policymakers in the future. First, the authors argue that evolution of the food supply has a direct and measurable impact on the physical characteristics of the population. Second, the marked increase in the social inequality has a direct impact on the resource accessibility and, subsequently, on the growth pattern of the surveyed nations (Moradi and Baten, 2005:1254). The implications of such evidence transcend the limitations of the model itself. The researchers recommend the governments to provide favourable external conditions for redistribution of wealth and resources in order to achieve higher rates of economic growth and development. 2.4. Resources, Social Determinants of Development and Opportunities In economic analysis of national development, indicators of sustainable growth are oftentimes linked to the advancement of technology, resources, and industrial activity. From a social standpoint, it is the access to resources and provision of more advanced amenities that allow researchers to effectively measure progress. Buys (2009:1496), for example, explored a widespread diffusion of cellular phones throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, modelling competitive networks according to the population concentration and government policy measures. Their time-scale representation of progress in cell-phone usage throughout this continent suggests that strategic policy reform has provided the most significant opportunity for widespread distribution of such technologies (Buys, 2009:1497). Improved competition amongst providers led to the spread of a sustainable low cost technology across the countries. This evidence suggests that opportunities play an important role in social and economic development. These opportunities, however, should be provided by the government and policy makers. Social factors in the sustainability of economic growth can oftentimes be overlooked in academia. Researchers focus instead on more tangible variables, attempting to model economic growth using purely economic variables and neglecting social factors. Chou (2006:910) demonstrates how social capital, as a strategic resource, can have a measurable and long term impact on the growth of a nation and its economic development. Essentially, as policymakers provide the resources for social capital to develop and expand, the infrastructure will simultaneously expand, allowing individuals to use the skills they have developed in a more effective and productive way. Over the long term, Chou (2006) suggests that technology and favourable policies of the government will lead countries to sustainable economic growth and stronger social infrastructure. Other models of social infrastructure have focused on the more practical composition of this expanding network. They emphasised such factors as the progress in transportation and population movement patterns. Porter (2002:286), for example, suggests that sustained improvements in both rural and urban transportation signal development progress in African nations. In particular, the author argues that economic recession of the 1980s and 1990s in African countries was reinforced by the poor condition of roads, transport and weak infrastructure. The deterioration of the transport infrastructure would reduce transport efficiency for the exchange of goods and services, resulting in a downward spiral in commercial activities (Porter, 2002:287). Porter (2002:296) argues that one of the methods to provide sustainable economic development is to stimulate the ‘scaling up of the national economy through the installation and evolution of social institutions. So, focusing on inequity in social development and the limitations imposed on infrastructure development and sustainability, the reviewed academics demonstrate how the consequence of restrictive social development is ultimately the deterioration of economic growth. The following empirical investigation will attempt to model such occurrences in modern Sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting those key variables that affect economic development. Chapter 3: Research Methodology 3.1. Research Model Researchers such as Moradi and Baten (2005:1234) argue that anthropometric models are fundamentally beneficial in the studies of national development, providing valuable insight into particular social factors that are indicative of long term development. In their analysis of Sub-Saharan African development, the authors used such models to analyse the data on accessibility of resources (i.e. nutritional and health inputs), providing a bounding metric by which they were able to evaluate inequality in the region (Moradi and Baten, 2005:1236). In a research model that was focused on a similar issue regarding the social determinants of economic growth, Newman and Tomson (1989:464) used World Bank databases to identify particular social indicators and statistically connect them to economic development. The methods and models of this dissertation are based on the research methodology of Newman and Tomson (1989: 464) and Jones and Klenow (2010). The econometric models will be represented by several equations that start from simpler ones and progress to the more complicated, which include additional variables and dummies. The list of equations that will be used is provided below. gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÃŽ µij (1) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ÃŽ µij (2) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + ÃŽ µij (3) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummyrij + ÃŽ µij (4) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummytij + ÃŽ µij (5) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummyrij + Ï„dummytij + ÃŽ µij (6) Among these models, the best one will be selected with the Akaike information criterion. Random and fixed effects will be used in the panel regression models to investigate, for example, the impact of the geographical location on the economic growth and other factors. A general form of the panel regression model with fixed effects will be as follows: yij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²Xij + uij, where the error term u is assumed to be a sum of the fixed effect and another error term: uij = ÃŽ ¼i + ÃŽ ½ij. The random effect model will be different from this one in how it explains ÃŽ ¼i and ÃŽ ½ij . These terms are assumed to be completely independent. Furthermore, they random variable effect implies that these terms are normally distributed, i.e. The choice of the methodology is consistent with the theoretical concepts of the growth models reviewed in the literature and supported by such economists as Solow (1956), Romer (1986) and Barro and i-Martin (2004). The theory of economic growth expressed by these economists mainly suggests that a countrys GDP is a function of both economic variables and social. In particular, it has been seen in the literature review that exogenous growth model connects GDP with the savings rates and technical progress. The theory of Solow (1956) and the growth theories in Barro and i-Martin (2004) also suggest that GDP is related to the population (social variable) because the latter determines the amount of capital and labour as factors of production. Hence, the core of the econometric model has been built on the exogenous growth theory proposed by Solow (1956) and explained in Barro and i-Martin (2004). However, it was found in literature review that this theory was also criticised. The models ha s been enhanced by inclusion of additional variables to make it more complicated and create a representation of social infrastructure, which is a key focus of the research. 3.2. Research Instruments, Approach and Sampling Based on the research model presented by Moradi and Baten (2005) and Newman and Tomson (1989), this investigation is focused on the changes in economic growth as a result of a number of social and economic variables that have been described. Researchers Thomas (2003) and Creswell (2009) provide models of empirical research, emphasising a unique link between both quantitative (statistical, data-driven) and qualitative (phenomenological, experience-driven) data streams. Their mixed method research approach places one of these two methods in a primary position over the other, allowing the subsequent research to serve as a validation mechanism. The data used in the dissertation is entirely based on economic development statistics within the Sub-Saharan African counties. However, the various phenomena, which contribute to such development, are of primary concern for the relevance and validity of this investigation. Therefore, a mixed method research approach was chosen for the study. Using this method, statistical findings will be achieved and later compared with various economic and social phenomena across the surveyed nations. Because there are 33 different nations currently associated with Sub-Saharan Africa, this research has chosen a sample of the top 23 countries in terms of population, attempting to retrieve data that is directly relevant to the conceptualisation of the long term sustainable growth and the impact of the social infrastructure on this process. Non-probability sampling technique has been implemented in choosing the countries. This decision may be justified by the fact that total population represented by the 33 countries in Sub-Saharan region is quite small and could be used without picking a sample. However, sampling was needed since a limited amount of data was available for the countries. Historical statistics have been gathered from Penn World Table, International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2010) and World Bank (2010) database. These sources provided information for only 23 counties in the Sub-Saharan region. 3.3. Strategy of Research While all of Africa could have provided very general information relative to the development of these nations as a conglomerate, it was important to evaluate the social infrastructure of these nations to narrow the scope of the research. The case study research strategy has been employed in order to investigate the social and economic situation in all the companies within the chosen sample. The case study strategy, which was popularised by Yin (2009), allows the researcher to extract particular data from complex problems and identify those variables, which are most significant. Furthermore, this strategy allows for effective exploration of both the statistics and context of the problem (Saunders et al, 2007, p.119). Yin (2009) presents a model of the investigative case study, suggesting that the breadth and focus of research questions will ultimately define the methods employed during the study. His validation of the case study strategy as a valuable tool within academic research is based on the depth and scope of the data generated from such investigation (Yin, 2009:14). Following such case study guidance and the mixed method approach previously discussed, this research was conducted in an effort to determine whether or not the social infrastructure has a direct and measurable impact on overall economic performance of the countries in Sub-Saharan region. The data sources were retrieved from two globally respected sources: The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Economic indicators were also gathered from Penn World Table. These databases have compiled specific economic and social data on the majority of the nations in the world, providing a resource for academics and policymakers. While the World Bank (2010) remained the primary source of the data, the IMF (2010) database was used for comparative purposes and in order to identify several variables not found within the World Bank annals. All analysis was conducted using Microsoft Excel and Eviews 6 statistical package. 3.4. Limitations As previously mentioned, the scope of the research in this empirical case study was limited to the top 23 countries in Sub-Saharan region. This limitation arose from the lack of economic and social data for the rest ten countries in the region. World Bank (2010) provided most but not all information that was needed. Another important limitation of the research, which is worth noting, is the lack of observations for several social indicators. It was noted previously that the sample of data covers 23 countries with the time range from 1980 to 2009. While many of the economic variables such as GDP were available for this period, some social indicators such as mortality rate were available only for a period of up to 5 years. Therefore, the overall sample will have to be shrunk to run the regression with these variables that have fewer observations. This is expected to have a negative impact on the accuracy of the study and estimated statistics. Chapter 4: Data Presentation and Analysis World Bank (2010) has provided economic and social data for twenty three countries in Sub-Saharan region. However, most of the data contained missing points. In order to avoid the problem of missing points, sixteen Sub-Saharan countries have been selected to be analysed for which more complete data was available. The data ranges from 1980 to 2008. However, some of the social indicators such as health expenditure and mortality rate were available only for a limited time period. The health expenditure indicator was available only for a period from 2003 to 2007. Mortality rate indicator was available only for a period from 1998 to 2008. Due to the differences in the time period of data several panel regressions will be run and the best model will be chosen by means of the Hausman test. Panel regression analysis has provided a number of advantages to the research project. First of all, it has allowed for gathering a large number of observations that totalled 4,250. If only time-series analysis was used, there would have been fewer observations. Similarly, in a cross sectional analysis the number of observations would solely depend on the number of countries included. Panel regression analysis has allowed for combining both time and cross sectional dimensions making the analysis more advanced. Secondly, another advantage of using the panel data analysis was higher degrees of freedom. This is a result of the more observations that the method has provided. Degr Social Infrastructure and Economic Growth Social Infrastructure and Economic Growth Abstract This dissertation has had a focus on the relationship and links between social infrastructure and economic growth in the context of Sub-Saharan countries. Predictability in development and growth is oftentimes linked to various endogenous conditions that can ultimately enhance or detract from the overall potential of a modern nation. The object of this research was represented by social and economic indicators in 23 Sub-Saharan countries. The aim was to find out whether the social infrastructure has a statistically significant impact on economic growth in this region. In order to reach this aim, the method of regression analysis has been implemented. The study has covered a wide range of social and economic variables observing them for a period from 1980 to 2008. The results of the study revealed that only population growth, life expectancy and savings rates are statistically significant determinants of economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. This finding has supported the assumpti on that social infrastructure is an important factor that effect economic growth and development. However, the research has been limited by the lack of information on all 33 countries in Sub-Saharan region. Therefore, the sample was reduced to 23 countries. Furthermore, some social indicators such as Gini coefficient and mortality rates were not available for some of the older years in the sample. The study ends with recommendations to policy makers and discussion of implications. Dedication and Acknowledgment This dissertation is dedicated to my parents who I love unconditionally. I would like to express my gratitude to the University staff for the knowledge they shared with me and inspiring me to think critically. Authors Declaration I declare that the research project has been independently prepared by myself and represents an original work with no plagiarism. All external ideas and quotations have been properly referenced. The full list of references is contained at the end of the dissertation. Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background As economic theory has evolved over the past several decades, a variety of variables have begun to infiltrate the standard models of growth and development. Roseta-Palma et al. (2010), for example, recognise that human capital has become an increasingly important variable in growth modelling, suggesting that the force behind such capital can radically alter the shape and potential of industry and markets. However, there is an inherent expectation of support, one which is based on the conceptualisation of the social infrastructure that leads the vocal masses to expect national investment in their wellbeing. To perform within a developing nation, society must be supported. The support must include effective health care and improved educational standards. The perpetuation of economic performance within diverse marketplaces ultimately relies upon the sustainability of such practices, leveraging human capital and contributing to market development. The theoretical background of this dissertation is represented by the elements of the economic theory that explains the growth and expansion as well as the role and influence of social factors. Econometric models put forward by the UN will be of particular importance. The research project will also review the arguments of famous contemporary economists such as Stiglitz (2009) and Jones and Klenow (2010). This will serve a useful theoretical background to the wider analysis, which is required for answering the research questions. The literature review will also cover the mainstream development theories such as dependency theory and social justice theory. From a conceptual perspective, researchers such as Newman and Tomson (1989) provide a precedence of focusing on social factors in economic development. They argue that social infrastructure is an essential element in sustainable long term growth of the economy. This theory may only be accepted as valid if it is statistically supported using the case studies of the economies. The testing has previously conducted by Jones and Klenow (2010). The researchers indeed supported the theory by finding that economic growth was boosted by increasing life expectancy in many countries. However, these researchers have not found such support of the theory for African countries in Sub-Saharan region. Therefore, this dissertation will attempt to study this region in more details and find statistical dependency between the social infrastructure and economic growth. Using the method of multiple regressions, a sample of 23 countries in Sub-Saharan region will be explored. The study will cover a period from 1980 to 2009. 1.2 Aims and Objectives In African countries, economic growth is a function of a wide range of variables such as foreign aid, foreign direct investments (FDI), policy reformation and liberalisation and others. This investigation seeks to examine a link, which is frequently overlooked in this dynamic and evolving economic system: social infrastructure. There is an innate reciprocity between social infrastructure and economic growth, one which requires further definition within the context of African evolution in order to determine the true order of events. In order to limit the scope and breadth of this study, the following aims and objectives were established: †¢ To determine whether social infrastructure is a fundamental determinant of economic growth. †¢ To explore statistical significance of social infrastructure as a determinant of the economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. †¢ To recommend strategic policy implications for the transition economies in Sub-Saharan region that would help them to grow and expand. 1.3 Research Questions Based on the aforementioned aims and objectives, particular research questions were defined. They focus on investigation of the relations between the African social infrastructure and economic growth experienced by various nations within this region. It may be argued that the socio-economic aspects, which contributed to successes for many nations, remain inconsistent and non-definable today. Based on this supposition, the following research questions were defined prior to engaging in the investigative process: †¢ What are the primary threats/pitfalls associated with economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa today? †¢ Does social infrastructure have a statistically significant impact on economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries? 1.4 Chapter Layout In order to standardise the research project, it was important to create a clear structure and presentation format. The study is structured in a way that would allow for progressing from more general information regarding the Sub-Saharan countries to more specific information regarding the variables that have a direct impact on the growth of the transition economies. The rest of the research project has the following structure. †¢ Chapter 2: Literature Review. This chapter focuses on a broad range of theoretical and empirical data that has been retrieved from a variety of academic sources. This literature review explores the determinants of the social infrastructure for developing nations, focusing on Sub-Saharan Africa. †¢ Chapter 3: Methodology. This chapter highlights the research methodology chosen during the collection and analysis of empirical data. Based on the precedence established by the past researchers, econometric modelling is used as the main method of the r esearch. This chapter also discussed the strategies and approached that were used with their justification. †¢ Chapter 4: Data Presentation. This chapter reveals the main findings and results of the research. The historical statistical data is presented and analysed. Correlation and regression analysis is applied to the data. The main results are summarised in tables and figures. †¢ Chapter 5: Discussion and Analysis. In this section, a synthesis of academic and empirical data is presented. The discussion is focused on the original research questions and objectives. They are compared to the findings achieved by previous researchers. Similarities and differences are analysed and explained. †¢ Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations. The final chapter provides the final insight into the relations between social infrastructure and economic growth in Sub-Saharan countries. Recommendations for future research are offered since the research project has encountered par ticular limitations that have to be addressed in the future. Furthermore, policy implications are recommended in this chapter. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1. Measuring Economic Growth While it is widely recognised that the measurement of economic growth provides an accurate picture of development and achievement in transition nations, the inherent value of such metrics has been questioned during the last decade because of several pitfalls. Hoogvvelt (2001:8) argues that in early development models, all emphasis was placed on strategic enhancement of the transition economies with impoverished nations. A traditional indicator of economic growth is represented by GDP. While conceptually indicative of growth and economic expansion, this indicator has been recently challenged as an effective measurement of sustainable national development. In fact, researchers such as Stiglitz (2002, 2007) and Collier (2007) have offered the arguments on the fact that GDP fails to represent an accurate picture of national economic welfare. It is argued to limit the identification of economic inequality and circumvent such influential social indicators as mortality rates, GNI per capita , education levels, etc. Other researchers such as Thakur (2006) have suggested that the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) should be used as an alternative measure of economic growth besides the GDP. 2.2. Growth Models The economic theory provides different growth models that explain the factors of economic growth and help to determine what cause an economy to expand. Among the well-established theories of growth are the neo-classical models suggested by Solow (1956: 65) and Ramsey (1928: 543). However, there are also alternative models that have recently been proposed. The most notable example is the endogenous growth model. 2.2.1. Neo-classical Growth Model of Solow and Ramsey The exogenous growth model has been originally presented by Solow (1956: 65). It is an extension of the previously formulated Harrod-Domar growth model. The latter suggests that the rate of economic growth is a function of the productivity of the countrys capital and the savings rates. Solow (1956: 65) has improved the Harrod-Domar growth model by differentiating between the new capital that emerged from the use of new technology and old capital. Diminishing returns started playing an important role in the exogenous growth model. Solow (1956:65) has also added labour to the determinants of the economic growth. The researcher argues that more than one factor of production should be included in the growth model. These factors are capital and labour. The researcher also emphasises the role of the technological progress in the economic growth. However, the model may be criticised for failing to provide the explanation of how and why the technology develops. In addition, the exogenous growth model may be criticised for neglecting the factor of entrepreneurship, which is argued to have a strong impact on economic growth (Braunerhjelm, 2008: 51; Audretsch et al, 2006: 119). Mathematically, the exogenous growth model may be presented as follows: Where Y is the output of the country; K is total capital (both new and old); L stands for labour; A represents technological development. The exogenous growth model is heavily reliant on the indicators estimated per capita. Hence, it places a significant emphasis on the role of the population growth in the economic growth. The capital per worker is argued to be growing only if the savings rates exceed the rate of populations growth and the level of depreciation of the capital. The exogenous growth model also suggests that the savings rate would be steady in the long run and have a positive correlation with the economic growth, i.e. the countries with higher savings rates will be expected to have higher economic growth. However, this notion was criticised by Ramsey (1928: 543) who proposed an alternative neo-classical model of growth. In his model the savings rates are assumed to be varying and not constant. The Ramsey model has changed the way the capital is modelled. Mathematically, it is represented as follows: Where k is capital; c is consumption; ÃŽ ´ is the rate of depreciation of capital; f (k) is the value of total production. Since the savings rates are not viewed as constant, the level of consumption is also considered as a varying process since it is tightly connected to savings. Since neither Ramsey nor Solow model of growth included the factor of entrepreneurship and explained technological progress as an endogenous process, an alternative model has been developed. It is called endogenous growth model (Barro and i-Martin, 2004: 205). 2.2.2. Endogenous Growth Model The previously discussed exogenous growth models suggested that a countrys GDP is a function of the savings rate and technological advances. Nonetheless, these exogenous growth models failed to show how savings are determined and how the technological changes are driven. These limitations are effectively solved by the endogenous growth model. It suggests that savings rates are simply a function of the utility maximising actions of the economic agents. Given the financial constraints, companies would aim to maximise their net income while consumers will tend to maximise their utility (Romer, 1986: 89). The endogenous growth model also explains technological progress as a result of the favourable policies from the government that do not restrict innovations and changes in the industries. It is valid to argue that in developing countries the governments may attempt to put certain restrictions on changes and innovations in order to protect the key sectors of the economy. The endogenous growth theory suggests that such actions would lead to a slowdown in the economic growth in the longer term. The theory also views company investments in the research and development as the way to technological progress and faster economic growth. Hence, the theory explains the growth of the economy with microeconomic elements (Aghion and Howitt, 1992: 323). However, the model has also been criticised in the economic literature. For example, Parente (2001: 51) argues that the endogenous growth model, even though being more complex, still fails to explain why there is a divergence in the national income per capita in emerging economies and developed countries. 2.3. The Social Factors, Economic Development and Equality A widespread academic research on social equality demonstrates that impoverished nations have traditionally failed to achieve healthy social infrastructure, which can sustain development amongst all groups of the population. Sebitosi and Pillay (2005:2045), for example, argue that poverty â€Å"is largely due to failure by society to productively deploy human resources† (Sebitosi and Pillay, 2005: 2045). The researchers argue that the governments of the countries with transition economies and policymakers cannot actively engage every individual in economic activities. In many cases, funding welfare programmes that were fiscally unsustainable has had minimal impact on the social welfare of the national inhabitants (Sebitosi and Pillay, 2005:2045). This is also illustrated by the efforts made by the African National Congress (ANC) in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Ultimately, it is the strategic utilisation of national resources that will allow for perpetuated social stability, gradual reduction of poverty over and improvement of social infrastructure. Sebitosi and Pillay (2005:2048) argue that availability of resources and the specifics of the culture determine the social infrastructure in a country. This, in turn, plays a role in the economic growth and development. Equality is a term used for describing the gap between the rich part of the population and the poor. This term is also expanded to describe the difference in rights between males and females, young and old, native and foreign ethnic groups, etc. Researchers such as Morvaridi (2008) and Houtzager (2005) argue that the merits of equality should be used as indicators of long term sustainability and economic growth of a nation. Anderson and Cavnagh (2009) have presented empirical evidence on the existence of income inequality and gender inequality that negatively impact the economic growth and development. Other academics (e.g. Sen, 2001) suggest that innate human rights must play a fundamental role in the development discourse, emphasising deficiencies within the national infrastructure that interrupt widespread equality. Accessibility and availability of resources and the level of social equality in developing nations are frequently identified as primary indicators of social development. Researchers such as Moradi and Baten (2005) have modelled social inequality according to anthropometric data. The model is focused on the level of development of social groups over the past decade. Their evidence highlights two different phenomena that have implications for policymakers in the future. First, the authors argue that evolution of the food supply has a direct and measurable impact on the physical characteristics of the population. Second, the marked increase in the social inequality has a direct impact on the resource accessibility and, subsequently, on the growth pattern of the surveyed nations (Moradi and Baten, 2005:1254). The implications of such evidence transcend the limitations of the model itself. The researchers recommend the governments to provide favourable external conditions for redistribution of wealth and resources in order to achieve higher rates of economic growth and development. 2.4. Resources, Social Determinants of Development and Opportunities In economic analysis of national development, indicators of sustainable growth are oftentimes linked to the advancement of technology, resources, and industrial activity. From a social standpoint, it is the access to resources and provision of more advanced amenities that allow researchers to effectively measure progress. Buys (2009:1496), for example, explored a widespread diffusion of cellular phones throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, modelling competitive networks according to the population concentration and government policy measures. Their time-scale representation of progress in cell-phone usage throughout this continent suggests that strategic policy reform has provided the most significant opportunity for widespread distribution of such technologies (Buys, 2009:1497). Improved competition amongst providers led to the spread of a sustainable low cost technology across the countries. This evidence suggests that opportunities play an important role in social and economic development. These opportunities, however, should be provided by the government and policy makers. Social factors in the sustainability of economic growth can oftentimes be overlooked in academia. Researchers focus instead on more tangible variables, attempting to model economic growth using purely economic variables and neglecting social factors. Chou (2006:910) demonstrates how social capital, as a strategic resource, can have a measurable and long term impact on the growth of a nation and its economic development. Essentially, as policymakers provide the resources for social capital to develop and expand, the infrastructure will simultaneously expand, allowing individuals to use the skills they have developed in a more effective and productive way. Over the long term, Chou (2006) suggests that technology and favourable policies of the government will lead countries to sustainable economic growth and stronger social infrastructure. Other models of social infrastructure have focused on the more practical composition of this expanding network. They emphasised such factors as the progress in transportation and population movement patterns. Porter (2002:286), for example, suggests that sustained improvements in both rural and urban transportation signal development progress in African nations. In particular, the author argues that economic recession of the 1980s and 1990s in African countries was reinforced by the poor condition of roads, transport and weak infrastructure. The deterioration of the transport infrastructure would reduce transport efficiency for the exchange of goods and services, resulting in a downward spiral in commercial activities (Porter, 2002:287). Porter (2002:296) argues that one of the methods to provide sustainable economic development is to stimulate the ‘scaling up of the national economy through the installation and evolution of social institutions. So, focusing on inequity in social development and the limitations imposed on infrastructure development and sustainability, the reviewed academics demonstrate how the consequence of restrictive social development is ultimately the deterioration of economic growth. The following empirical investigation will attempt to model such occurrences in modern Sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting those key variables that affect economic development. Chapter 3: Research Methodology 3.1. Research Model Researchers such as Moradi and Baten (2005:1234) argue that anthropometric models are fundamentally beneficial in the studies of national development, providing valuable insight into particular social factors that are indicative of long term development. In their analysis of Sub-Saharan African development, the authors used such models to analyse the data on accessibility of resources (i.e. nutritional and health inputs), providing a bounding metric by which they were able to evaluate inequality in the region (Moradi and Baten, 2005:1236). In a research model that was focused on a similar issue regarding the social determinants of economic growth, Newman and Tomson (1989:464) used World Bank databases to identify particular social indicators and statistically connect them to economic development. The methods and models of this dissertation are based on the research methodology of Newman and Tomson (1989: 464) and Jones and Klenow (2010). The econometric models will be represented by several equations that start from simpler ones and progress to the more complicated, which include additional variables and dummies. The list of equations that will be used is provided below. gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÃŽ µij (1) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ÃŽ µij (2) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + ÃŽ µij (3) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummyrij + ÃŽ µij (4) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummytij + ÃŽ µij (5) gdpij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²popij + ÃŽ ³pop65ij + ÃŽ »lifij + ÃŽ ´savij + ÏÆ'mortfij + ÃŽ ½mortmij + ωhexpij + Ï dummyrij + Ï„dummytij + ÃŽ µij (6) Among these models, the best one will be selected with the Akaike information criterion. Random and fixed effects will be used in the panel regression models to investigate, for example, the impact of the geographical location on the economic growth and other factors. A general form of the panel regression model with fixed effects will be as follows: yij = ÃŽ ± + ÃŽ ²Xij + uij, where the error term u is assumed to be a sum of the fixed effect and another error term: uij = ÃŽ ¼i + ÃŽ ½ij. The random effect model will be different from this one in how it explains ÃŽ ¼i and ÃŽ ½ij . These terms are assumed to be completely independent. Furthermore, they random variable effect implies that these terms are normally distributed, i.e. The choice of the methodology is consistent with the theoretical concepts of the growth models reviewed in the literature and supported by such economists as Solow (1956), Romer (1986) and Barro and i-Martin (2004). The theory of economic growth expressed by these economists mainly suggests that a countrys GDP is a function of both economic variables and social. In particular, it has been seen in the literature review that exogenous growth model connects GDP with the savings rates and technical progress. The theory of Solow (1956) and the growth theories in Barro and i-Martin (2004) also suggest that GDP is related to the population (social variable) because the latter determines the amount of capital and labour as factors of production. Hence, the core of the econometric model has been built on the exogenous growth theory proposed by Solow (1956) and explained in Barro and i-Martin (2004). However, it was found in literature review that this theory was also criticised. The models ha s been enhanced by inclusion of additional variables to make it more complicated and create a representation of social infrastructure, which is a key focus of the research. 3.2. Research Instruments, Approach and Sampling Based on the research model presented by Moradi and Baten (2005) and Newman and Tomson (1989), this investigation is focused on the changes in economic growth as a result of a number of social and economic variables that have been described. Researchers Thomas (2003) and Creswell (2009) provide models of empirical research, emphasising a unique link between both quantitative (statistical, data-driven) and qualitative (phenomenological, experience-driven) data streams. Their mixed method research approach places one of these two methods in a primary position over the other, allowing the subsequent research to serve as a validation mechanism. The data used in the dissertation is entirely based on economic development statistics within the Sub-Saharan African counties. However, the various phenomena, which contribute to such development, are of primary concern for the relevance and validity of this investigation. Therefore, a mixed method research approach was chosen for the study. Using this method, statistical findings will be achieved and later compared with various economic and social phenomena across the surveyed nations. Because there are 33 different nations currently associated with Sub-Saharan Africa, this research has chosen a sample of the top 23 countries in terms of population, attempting to retrieve data that is directly relevant to the conceptualisation of the long term sustainable growth and the impact of the social infrastructure on this process. Non-probability sampling technique has been implemented in choosing the countries. This decision may be justified by the fact that total population represented by the 33 countries in Sub-Saharan region is quite small and could be used without picking a sample. However, sampling was needed since a limited amount of data was available for the countries. Historical statistics have been gathered from Penn World Table, International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2010) and World Bank (2010) database. These sources provided information for only 23 counties in the Sub-Saharan region. 3.3. Strategy of Research While all of Africa could have provided very general information relative to the development of these nations as a conglomerate, it was important to evaluate the social infrastructure of these nations to narrow the scope of the research. The case study research strategy has been employed in order to investigate the social and economic situation in all the companies within the chosen sample. The case study strategy, which was popularised by Yin (2009), allows the researcher to extract particular data from complex problems and identify those variables, which are most significant. Furthermore, this strategy allows for effective exploration of both the statistics and context of the problem (Saunders et al, 2007, p.119). Yin (2009) presents a model of the investigative case study, suggesting that the breadth and focus of research questions will ultimately define the methods employed during the study. His validation of the case study strategy as a valuable tool within academic research is based on the depth and scope of the data generated from such investigation (Yin, 2009:14). Following such case study guidance and the mixed method approach previously discussed, this research was conducted in an effort to determine whether or not the social infrastructure has a direct and measurable impact on overall economic performance of the countries in Sub-Saharan region. The data sources were retrieved from two globally respected sources: The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Economic indicators were also gathered from Penn World Table. These databases have compiled specific economic and social data on the majority of the nations in the world, providing a resource for academics and policymakers. While the World Bank (2010) remained the primary source of the data, the IMF (2010) database was used for comparative purposes and in order to identify several variables not found within the World Bank annals. All analysis was conducted using Microsoft Excel and Eviews 6 statistical package. 3.4. Limitations As previously mentioned, the scope of the research in this empirical case study was limited to the top 23 countries in Sub-Saharan region. This limitation arose from the lack of economic and social data for the rest ten countries in the region. World Bank (2010) provided most but not all information that was needed. Another important limitation of the research, which is worth noting, is the lack of observations for several social indicators. It was noted previously that the sample of data covers 23 countries with the time range from 1980 to 2009. While many of the economic variables such as GDP were available for this period, some social indicators such as mortality rate were available only for a period of up to 5 years. Therefore, the overall sample will have to be shrunk to run the regression with these variables that have fewer observations. This is expected to have a negative impact on the accuracy of the study and estimated statistics. Chapter 4: Data Presentation and Analysis World Bank (2010) has provided economic and social data for twenty three countries in Sub-Saharan region. However, most of the data contained missing points. In order to avoid the problem of missing points, sixteen Sub-Saharan countries have been selected to be analysed for which more complete data was available. The data ranges from 1980 to 2008. However, some of the social indicators such as health expenditure and mortality rate were available only for a limited time period. The health expenditure indicator was available only for a period from 2003 to 2007. Mortality rate indicator was available only for a period from 1998 to 2008. Due to the differences in the time period of data several panel regressions will be run and the best model will be chosen by means of the Hausman test. Panel regression analysis has provided a number of advantages to the research project. First of all, it has allowed for gathering a large number of observations that totalled 4,250. If only time-series analysis was used, there would have been fewer observations. Similarly, in a cross sectional analysis the number of observations would solely depend on the number of countries included. Panel regression analysis has allowed for combining both time and cross sectional dimensions making the analysis more advanced. Secondly, another advantage of using the panel data analysis was higher degrees of freedom. This is a result of the more observations that the method has provided. Degr

Ten Important Factors of Googles Local Search Algorithm Essay

10 Important Factors of Google's Local Search Algorithm Different factors affect rankings on Google Maps. Based on my experiences with local costumers here are the top 10 most essential things to consider for your business. 1. Your business address. Your business location is important, if you want to get a rank for a certain city. A friend of mine ranks high on "richlandwa real estate" because that's where her address is, she is nowhere to be found for "Kennewick" or "Pasco" (the other major local cities) keywords. There is an exception: She ranks very for "West richlandwa real estate," for the reason that it's just a real estate agent with offices in West Richland (Tri-Star). 2. Business categories. I was hesitant at first in naming the most important factor between this and the next factor. However, I think it's something more important to your business if it is properly categorized rather than getting the right keyword in your company name. When I dug into the" san francisco bakery" 7-pack, all the seven companies categorized as a bakery. Other searches often give the same results. 3. Right keywords in your business name. watching for real estate keywords made me place this criteria. These days agents who prosper in this field have "real estate" attached to their name. In my opinion, LSRF's replies were a disgrace because many people focus on the spam area. There are many businesses that have keywords in their name. For example, I had lunch at Henry's Restaurant yesterday and I'm confident that this will help them get a better rank. 4. Quality of citation. According to David Mihm, local citations are the "new links." Google validates your business location, contact information and name through quotes. Meani... ...rder of a museum that shows up in results? Some of it is the distance, and others are on the relevance to the search. Some of it is the primary factor of the actual activities " Hence, let's look at my rank ten factors related to Google's terminology. Location or Distance: Two of my factors were included: your business address (1) and the nearness of the site (8). Others also fit: complete business profile, plays a role (5), because you must provide a location. Consistency of business data (6) will also define your location. Relevance:Business categories (2) and right keywords in your business name (3) and Specific traditional SEO factor (10) defines this area. Significance: From my list, it consist of quality of citation (4), ratings and reviews (7) and my maps and other user content data (9). All of this help in making a local company more prominent.